{"version":"1.0","license":"CC BY 4.0","attribution":"AmericanPeptide.com","documentation":"https://americanpeptide.com/developers","generated":"2026-09-15T07:21:52.606Z","filters":{"category":null,"area":"weight-loss","fda":true,"q":null},"categories":[{"id":"metabolic","label":"Metabolic"},{"id":"growth-hormone","label":"Growth Hormone"},{"id":"healing-repair","label":"Healing & Repair"},{"id":"cognitive","label":"Cognitive"},{"id":"longevity","label":"Longevity"},{"id":"cosmetic","label":"Cosmetic"},{"id":"reproductive","label":"Reproductive"},{"id":"immune","label":"Immune"},{"id":"mitochondrial","label":"Mitochondrial"},{"id":"bioregulator","label":"Bioregulators"},{"id":"peptide-hormone","label":"Peptide Hormones"}],"researchAreas":[{"slug":"weight-loss","label":"Weight Loss & Metabolic Health"},{"slug":"wound-healing","label":"Wound Healing & Tissue Repair"},{"slug":"cognition-neuroprotection","label":"Cognition & Neuroprotection"},{"slug":"anxiety-mood","label":"Anxiety, Mood & Stress"},{"slug":"sleep-circadian","label":"Sleep & Circadian Rhythm"},{"slug":"longevity-aging","label":"Longevity & Aging"},{"slug":"growth-hormone-axis","label":"Growth Hormone & Body Composition"},{"slug":"muscle-lean-mass","label":"Muscle Preservation & Lean Mass"},{"slug":"skin-hair","label":"Skin & Hair"},{"slug":"sexual-reproductive","label":"Sexual & Reproductive Health"},{"slug":"immune-inflammation","label":"Immune & Inflammation"},{"slug":"mitochondrial","label":"Mitochondrial & Bioenergetics"},{"slug":"bioregulators","label":"Peptide Bioregulators"},{"slug":"peptide-hormones","label":"Peptide Hormone Synthesis"}],"count":8,"peptides":[{"slug":"semaglutide","name":"Semaglutide","aliases":["Ozempic","Wegovy","Rybelsus"],"categories":["metabolic"],"categoryLabels":["Metabolic"],"researchAreas":["Type 2 diabetes","Obesity","MASH","Cardiovascular risk reduction"],"researchAreaGuides":[{"slug":"weight-loss","label":"Weight Loss & Metabolic Health","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/weight-loss"}],"shortDescription":"The once-weekly GLP-1 receptor agonist behind Ozempic, Wegovy, and Rybelsus — FDA-approved for type 2 diabetes, chronic weight management, cardiovascular risk reduction, and MASH.","description":"Semaglutide is a 31-amino-acid GLP-1 receptor agonist engineered for once-weekly dosing via fatty-acid acylation and amino-acid substitutions that resist DPP-4 degradation. It is FDA-approved for type 2 diabetes (Ozempic, 2017; oral Rybelsus, 2019), chronic weight management (Wegovy, 2021), cardiovascular risk reduction in adults with obesity and established heart disease (2024), and — as of August 2025 — metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) with moderate-to-advanced fibrosis. The STEP-1 obesity trial reported ~14.9% mean weight reduction at 68 weeks.","background":["Semaglutide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist built on the backbone of human GLP-1. Two engineering changes define it: a C18 fatty-diacid chain attached through a linker that promotes reversible binding to albumin, and amino-acid substitutions that resist degradation by the enzyme DPP-4. Together these extend its half-life to roughly a week, enabling once-weekly administration. An oral formulation (Rybelsus) co-formulates the peptide with the absorption enhancer SNAC to protect it through the stomach.","Its pivotal data anchor the modern incretin era. The STEP-1 trial (Wilding et al., NEJM 2021, PMID 33567185) reported −14.9% mean body-weight change at 68 weeks on the 2.4 mg dose versus −2.4% on placebo — roughly 70% of participants lost at least 10% of body weight. The SELECT cardiovascular-outcomes trial reported a 20% reduction in major adverse cardiovascular events in adults with overweight or obesity and established cardiovascular disease but without diabetes, leading to a dedicated CV indication in 2024; the SOUL trial (McGuire et al., NEJM 2025, PMID 40162642) then showed the oral formulation cuts MACE by 14% in high-risk type 2 diabetes.","The liver program is the most recent expansion. The ESSENCE Phase 3 trial (Sanyal et al., NEJM 2025, PMID 40305708) reported resolution of steatohepatitis without worsening of fibrosis in 62.9% of participants on semaglutide 2.4 mg versus 34.3% on placebo at 72 weeks, and in August 2025 the FDA granted accelerated approval of Wegovy for noncirrhotic MASH with moderate-to-advanced fibrosis. Semaglutide’s acylation-plus-DPP-4-resistance template now informs the entire incretin class — dual agonists like tirzepatide and triple agonists like retatrutide are its molecular descendants."],"keyResearch":["Weight management — STEP-1 (NEJM 2021) reported −14.9% mean weight reduction at 68 weeks (2.4 mg) versus −2.4% placebo; ~70% of participants lost ≥10% of body weight.","Cardiovascular outcomes — SELECT reported a 20% MACE reduction in obesity with established CVD (no diabetes); SOUL (NEJM 2025) reported a 14% MACE reduction for oral semaglutide in high-risk type 2 diabetes.","MASH — ESSENCE Phase 3 (NEJM 2025) reported 62.9% steatohepatitis resolution versus 34.3% placebo; FDA accelerated approval for MASH followed in August 2025.","Glycemic control — the original approved use: glucose-dependent insulin secretion and glucagon suppression in type 2 diabetes (SUSTAIN program).","Half-life engineering — fatty-acid acylation and DPP-4-resistant substitutions extend the half-life to ~1 week; the oral form adds the SNAC absorption enhancer."],"faqs":[{"q":"What is semaglutide?","a":"Semaglutide is a long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonist FDA-approved for type 2 diabetes (Ozempic, Rybelsus), chronic weight management (Wegovy), cardiovascular risk reduction in obesity with established heart disease, and — since August 2025 — MASH with moderate-to-advanced fibrosis."},{"q":"How much weight do people lose on semaglutide?","a":"In the pivotal STEP-1 trial (NEJM 2021), adults on semaglutide 2.4 mg lost a mean of 14.9% of body weight at 68 weeks versus 2.4% on placebo; about 70% lost at least 10%, and about half lost at least 15%. These are trial population means, not individual predictions."},{"q":"What is the difference between Ozempic, Wegovy, and Rybelsus?","a":"All three are semaglutide. Ozempic (weekly injection) and Rybelsus (daily oral tablet) are approved for type 2 diabetes; Wegovy (weekly injection, higher 2.4 mg dose) is approved for chronic weight management, cardiovascular risk reduction, and MASH. This page is a research reference, not medical advice."},{"q":"Is semaglutide approved for fatty liver (MASH)?","a":"Yes — in August 2025 the FDA granted accelerated approval of Wegovy for adults with noncirrhotic MASH and moderate-to-advanced liver fibrosis, based on the ESSENCE Phase 3 trial (62.9% steatohepatitis resolution versus 34.3% placebo at 72 weeks)."},{"q":"What are the side effects of semaglutide?","a":"The most common adverse events in trials are gastrointestinal — nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation — usually during dose escalation. The label carries a boxed warning about thyroid C-cell tumors seen in rodent studies. This page is a research reference, not medical advice."},{"q":"Why is semaglutide dosed once weekly?","a":"A fatty-diacid side chain lets it bind reversibly to albumin, and amino-acid substitutions resist breakdown by the enzyme DPP-4 — together stretching GLP-1’s natural minutes-long half-life to about one week."},{"q":"How does semaglutide compare to tirzepatide and retatrutide?","a":"Semaglutide activates GLP-1 alone; tirzepatide adds GIP (dual agonist, ~22.5% mean weight loss in SURMOUNT-1) and retatrutide adds both GIP and glucagon (triple agonist, ~28.7% in the first Phase 3 readout). Cross-trial comparisons are not head-to-head; semaglutide remains the most extensively studied and broadly approved of the three."},{"q":"Is semaglutide a peptide?","a":"Yes — a 31-residue analog of human GLP-1 (~4,113.6 Da) built by solid-phase synthesis, with a C18 fatty-diacid chain on a linker attached to a lysine. The oral Rybelsus form co-formulates the same peptide with the SNAC absorption enhancer."}],"mechanism":"GLP-1 receptor agonism → glucose-dependent insulin secretion, glucagon suppression, slowed gastric emptying, and central appetite suppression.","molecularWeight":4113.6,"molecularFormula":"C187H291N45O59","sequence":null,"cas":"910463-68-2","pubchemCid":56843331,"uniprotId":null,"fdaApproved":true,"url":"https://americanpeptide.com/catalog/semaglutide"},{"slug":"liraglutide","name":"Liraglutide","aliases":["Victoza","Saxenda","NN2211"],"categories":["metabolic"],"categoryLabels":["Metabolic"],"researchAreas":["Type 2 diabetes","Obesity","Cardiovascular risk reduction"],"researchAreaGuides":[{"slug":"weight-loss","label":"Weight Loss & Metabolic Health","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/weight-loss"}],"shortDescription":"The once-daily GLP-1 agonist that preceded semaglutide — FDA-approved for diabetes (Victoza) and obesity (Saxenda).","description":"Liraglutide is a GLP-1 receptor agonist and the direct predecessor of semaglutide — the drug that proved the once-daily, acylated GLP-1 template before Novo Nordisk stretched it to once-weekly dosing. A fatty-acid chain on the GLP-1 backbone extends its half-life to about 13 hours, enough for daily injection. It was FDA-approved for type 2 diabetes (Victoza, 2010) and later, at higher dose, for chronic weight management (Saxenda, 2014).","background":["Liraglutide is where the modern GLP-1 story really begins for daily therapy. It is a GLP-1(7-37) analog carrying a single amino-acid substitution and, crucially, a C16 palmitic-acid chain attached through a glutamate spacer to a lysine — an acylation that lets the peptide bind reversibly to albumin and resist rapid clearance. That change pushed GLP-1’s natural half-life of minutes out to roughly half a day, making once-daily injection practical.","Novo Nordisk brought it to market for type 2 diabetes as Victoza (2010) and then, at a higher dose, for chronic weight management as Saxenda (2014), backed by a cardiovascular-outcomes trial (LEADER) showing benefit in high-risk patients. Semaglutide is its direct successor — the same acylation strategy taken further to reach once-weekly dosing and larger weight effects — which makes liraglutide both a still-used medicine and the historical bridge to the drugs that followed it."],"keyResearch":["Glycemic control — the original approved use (Victoza) for type 2 diabetes via GLP-1 receptor agonism.","Weight management — approved at higher dose as Saxenda for chronic weight management.","Cardiovascular outcomes — the LEADER trial reported reduced major adverse cardiovascular events in high-risk type 2 diabetes.","Once-daily acylation — a C16 fatty-acid chain and albumin binding extend its half-life to ~13 hours, the template semaglutide later extended to weekly.","FDA-approved — Victoza (2010) and Saxenda (2014)."],"faqs":[{"q":"What is liraglutide?","a":"Liraglutide is a once-daily GLP-1 receptor agonist approved for type 2 diabetes (Victoza) and chronic weight management (Saxenda); it is the direct predecessor of semaglutide."},{"q":"How is it different from semaglutide?","a":"Both are acylated GLP-1 agonists, but liraglutide is dosed once daily (~13-hour half-life) while semaglutide was engineered for once-weekly dosing and larger average weight loss."},{"q":"What is the difference between Victoza and Saxenda?","a":"Both are liraglutide. Victoza is approved for type 2 diabetes; Saxenda is the higher-dose version approved for chronic weight management."},{"q":"Is liraglutide FDA-approved?","a":"Yes — for type 2 diabetes (Victoza) and chronic weight management (Saxenda). This page is a research and educational reference, not medical advice."}],"mechanism":"GLP-1 receptor agonism → glucose-dependent insulin secretion, glucagon suppression, slowed gastric emptying, and central appetite reduction.","molecularWeight":3751.2,"molecularFormula":"C172H265N43O51","sequence":null,"cas":"204656-20-2","pubchemCid":16134956,"uniprotId":null,"fdaApproved":true,"url":"https://americanpeptide.com/catalog/liraglutide"},{"slug":"tirzepatide","name":"Tirzepatide","aliases":["Mounjaro","Zepbound"],"categories":["metabolic"],"categoryLabels":["Metabolic"],"researchAreas":["Type 2 diabetes","Obesity","Obstructive sleep apnea"],"researchAreaGuides":[{"slug":"weight-loss","label":"Weight Loss & Metabolic Health","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/weight-loss"},{"slug":"sleep-circadian","label":"Sleep & Circadian Rhythm","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/sleep-circadian"}],"shortDescription":"Dual GIP / GLP-1 receptor agonist with industry-leading weight-loss endpoints.","description":"Tirzepatide is a 39-amino-acid synthetic peptide acting as a dual agonist at GIP and GLP-1 receptors. Approved by the FDA for type 2 diabetes (2022) and chronic weight management (2023).","background":["Tirzepatide is a synthetic 39-amino-acid peptide that activates two incretin receptors at once — GIP (glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide) and GLP-1. It carries a fatty-acid chain for albumin binding and once-weekly dosing, and is sometimes described as a \"twincretin\" for its dual mechanism.","Developed by Eli Lilly, it was approved for type 2 diabetes (Mounjaro, 2022) and chronic weight management (Zepbound, 2023). In placebo-controlled and head-to-head trials it produced some of the largest weight reductions reported for a pharmacologic agent, which has driven intense research interest in multi-receptor incretin design."],"keyResearch":["Glycemic control — dual GIP/GLP-1 activation studied for insulin secretion and HbA1c reduction.","Weight management — trials reported weight reductions exceeding those of single GLP-1 agonists.","Obstructive sleep apnea — investigated as an endpoint in people with obesity.","Cardiometabolic markers — examined for effects on lipids, blood pressure, and hepatic fat.","Dual-agonism rationale — GIP is studied as complementary to GLP-1 for insulinotropic and satiety effects."],"faqs":[{"q":"What is tirzepatide?","a":"Tirzepatide is a dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist approved for type 2 diabetes (Mounjaro) and chronic weight management (Zepbound)."},{"q":"How is tirzepatide different from semaglutide?","a":"Semaglutide activates the GLP-1 receptor alone; tirzepatide activates both GIP and GLP-1 receptors, a dual mechanism studied for greater metabolic effect."},{"q":"What does \"twincretin\" mean?","a":"It is an informal term for a peptide that engages two incretin pathways — here GIP and GLP-1 — within a single molecule."},{"q":"Is tirzepatide FDA approved?","a":"Yes, for type 2 diabetes and chronic weight management under the brand names Mounjaro and Zepbound. This page is a research and educational reference."}],"mechanism":"Co-activation of GIP + GLP-1 receptors; complementary insulinotropic and satiety effects.","molecularWeight":4813.5,"molecularFormula":"C225H348N48O68","sequence":null,"cas":"2023788-19-2","pubchemCid":166567236,"uniprotId":null,"fdaApproved":true,"url":"https://americanpeptide.com/catalog/tirzepatide"},{"slug":"insulin","name":"Insulin (human)","aliases":["Recombinant human insulin","rhInsulin","regular insulin","Humulin","Novolin"],"categories":["metabolic","peptide-hormone"],"categoryLabels":["Metabolic","Peptide Hormones"],"researchAreas":["Type 1 diabetes","Type 2 diabetes","Glucose metabolism","Anabolic signaling","Peptide hormones"],"researchAreaGuides":[{"slug":"weight-loss","label":"Weight Loss & Metabolic Health","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/weight-loss"},{"slug":"peptide-hormones","label":"Peptide Hormone Synthesis","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/peptide-hormones"}],"shortDescription":"The archetypal protein biologic — a 51-amino-acid two-chain hormone, disulfide-linked, and the first recombinant DNA drug ever marketed.","description":"Insulin is the hormone that defined the biologic era. It is a small but genuinely complex protein: two peptide chains — an A chain of 21 residues and a B chain of 30 — held together by two interchain disulfide bonds, with a third disulfide looping within the A chain. At ~5.8 kDa it is the smallest hormone in this catalog’s biologic tier, yet it is assembled, folded, and processed exactly like the larger proteins, and it was the molecule that proved recombinant human therapeutics were possible.","background":["Insulin is synthesized in the body as a single chain — preproinsulin → proinsulin — that folds and forms its disulfide bonds before a connecting C-peptide is excised, leaving the mature two-chain hormone. That biosynthetic detail is why early recombinant manufacturing expressed the A and B chains (or proinsulin) in bacteria and then handled folding and disulfide pairing as a controlled step: the chemistry that the body does enzymatically has to be reproduced and verified in a reactor. Get the disulfides wrong and you get a misfolded, inactive — or immunogenic — product.","Its history is foundational twice over. Insulin was discovered in 1921 in Toronto by Banting, Best, Macleod, and Collip, and the patent was famously sold to the university for one dollar on the principle that \"insulin belongs to the world.\" Six decades later, in 1982, recombinant human insulin (Humulin) became the first recombinant-DNA drug ever approved — the proof of concept for the entire modern biologic industry, including most of the engineered peptides elsewhere in this catalog.","And then the American drama. Despite the dollar patent and a century of manufacturing experience, US insulin list prices roughly tripled between 2002 and 2013, pushing some patients to ration a drug they cannot live without — a recurring, deadly access failure that sits uncomfortably against the molecule’s origin story. For a reference that takes provenance and honest pricing seriously, insulin is the clearest case study in the gap between what a medicine costs to make and what it is sold for.","Insulin is also widely misunderstood at the edges: it is occasionally misused in bodybuilding for its anabolic effects, where dosing errors cause life-threatening hypoglycemia, and the modern GLP-1 era has shifted public perception of what \"diabetes medicine\" even means. It remains, first and foremost, essential replacement therapy for type 1 diabetes and an important tool in advanced type 2."],"keyResearch":["Type 1 diabetes — life-sustaining replacement therapy; the body produces no insulin without it.","Type 2 diabetes — used when oral agents and incretins no longer maintain glycemic control.","Insulin-receptor signaling — the PI3K/AKT and MAPK pathways that make it a central anabolic and metabolic hormone.","Analog engineering — rapid-acting (lispro, aspart) and long-acting (glargine, detemir) analogs re-engineer the sequence/formulation to reshape the absorption curve.","First recombinant drug — Humulin (1982) established recombinant human protein manufacturing.","Hypoglycemia risk — narrow therapeutic margin; misuse outside medical supervision is dangerous."],"faqs":[{"q":"What is human insulin?","a":"A 51-amino-acid protein hormone made of two disulfide-linked chains that lowers blood glucose by driving its uptake into cells. Recombinant human insulin is produced in engineered bacteria or yeast and was the first recombinant-DNA drug approved (1982)."},{"q":"Why is insulin considered a biologic and not just a peptide?","a":"It is a folded, multi-chain protein whose activity depends on correct disulfide pairing, and it is produced in living cells. Its manufacturing and quality control are protein-grade, not the solid-phase synthesis used for short research peptides."},{"q":"Why is insulin so expensive in the US if the patent was sold for a dollar?","a":"The original patent was sold for $1, but modern insulin products, manufacturing, and the US pricing system are separate from that history. List prices rose sharply in the 2000s–2010s, a widely documented access problem."},{"q":"Is this medical advice?","a":"No. This is a research and educational reference. Insulin has a narrow safety margin and is a prescription medicine; nothing here is dosing guidance."}],"mechanism":"Binds the insulin receptor, a tyrosine kinase, triggering autophosphorylation and the PI3K/AKT cascade that drives GLUT4 translocation and glucose uptake into muscle and fat, suppresses hepatic glucose output, and promotes glycogen, lipid, and protein synthesis.","molecularWeight":5808,"molecularFormula":"C257H383N65O77S6","sequence":"A chain: GIVEQCCTSICSLYQLENYCN | B chain: FVNQHLCGSHLVEALYLVCGERGFFYTPKT","cas":"11061-68-0","pubchemCid":null,"uniprotId":null,"fdaApproved":true,"url":"https://americanpeptide.com/catalog/insulin"},{"slug":"glucagon","name":"Glucagon","aliases":["GlucaGen","Baqsimi","Gvoke"],"categories":["metabolic","peptide-hormone"],"categoryLabels":["Metabolic","Peptide Hormones"],"researchAreas":["Severe hypoglycemia","Glucose counter-regulation","Triple-agonist metabolic drugs","Peptide hormones"],"researchAreaGuides":[{"slug":"weight-loss","label":"Weight Loss & Metabolic Health","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/weight-loss"},{"slug":"peptide-hormones","label":"Peptide Hormone Synthesis","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/peptide-hormones"}],"shortDescription":"Insulin’s counter-hormone — a 29-amino-acid peptide that raises blood glucose, the emergency rescue for severe lows, and the \"G\" in the new triple agonists.","description":"Glucagon is the metabolic mirror image of insulin. Released by the pancreatic alpha cells when blood sugar falls, this 29-amino-acid peptide tells the liver to break down glycogen and make new glucose, pushing blood sugar back up. It is the body’s primary defense against hypoglycemia, the basis of emergency rescue products, and — in a development that has put it back at the center of metabolic drug design — one of the three receptors the newest weight-loss agonists deliberately engage.","background":["Glucagon and insulin are a push-pull pair: insulin lowers blood glucose, glucagon raises it, and health depends on their balance. When blood sugar drops dangerously — most often in insulin-treated diabetes — glucagon is the rescue, which is why it is sold as emergency kits: the classic reconstituted injection (GlucaGen), a nasal powder (Baqsimi, 2019), and a ready-to-use autoinjector (Gvoke). It is also used in radiology and endoscopy to relax smooth muscle.","As a molecule it is a 29-residue peptide derived from the same precursor (preproglucagon) that gives rise to GLP-1 and GLP-2 — a family relationship that matters more than it first appears. For decades glucagon was framed only as the hormone you suppress in diabetes. The reframing came from drug design: adding glucagon-receptor agonism to incretin drugs increases energy expenditure and fat mobilization, and the glucagon receptor is the \"G\" in the GIP/GLP-1/glucagon triple agonists (such as retatrutide) now posting the largest weight-loss numbers in trials.","That is the forward-looking turn — the same hormone that, unopposed, worsens diabetic hyperglycemia becomes, when balanced against incretin signaling, a lever for greater fat loss and metabolic rate. It is a clean example of how a \"bad\" hormone in one context is a deliberate design ingredient in another."],"keyResearch":["Severe hypoglycemia rescue — the approved use; raises blood glucose fast via hepatic glycogenolysis.","Insulin counter-regulation — the opposing arm of moment-to-moment glucose control.","Triple-agonist drugs — glucagon-receptor agonism is the \"G\" in GIP/GLP-1/glucagon agonists studied for large weight loss.","Procedural use — relaxes GI smooth muscle for imaging and endoscopy.","Preproglucagon family — shares a precursor with GLP-1 and GLP-2."],"faqs":[{"q":"What does glucagon do?","a":"Glucagon raises blood sugar — it is the counter-hormone to insulin. The pancreas releases it when glucose falls, signaling the liver to release stored glucose. As a drug it is the emergency rescue for severe hypoglycemia."},{"q":"Why is glucagon in weight-loss drugs?","a":"Glucagon-receptor agonism increases energy expenditure and fat mobilization. It is the \"G\" in the GIP/GLP-1/glucagon triple agonists (like retatrutide) that show the largest weight-loss effects in trials."},{"q":"How is it related to GLP-1?","a":"Both come from the same precursor protein, preproglucagon. Glucagon raises blood sugar; GLP-1 lowers it and curbs appetite — different products of one parent molecule."},{"q":"Is this medical advice?","a":"No — this is a research and educational reference, not dosing guidance."}],"mechanism":"Binds the glucagon receptor on hepatocytes, raising cAMP and driving glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to increase blood glucose. It opposes insulin in the moment-to-moment regulation of blood sugar.","molecularWeight":3485,"molecularFormula":"C153H225N43O49S","sequence":"HSQGTFTSDYSKYLDSRRAQDFVQWLMNT","cas":"16941-32-5","pubchemCid":null,"uniprotId":null,"fdaApproved":true,"url":"https://americanpeptide.com/catalog/glucagon"},{"slug":"tesamorelin","name":"Tesamorelin","aliases":["Egrifta"],"categories":["growth-hormone","metabolic"],"categoryLabels":["Growth Hormone","Metabolic"],"researchAreas":["Visceral adiposity","HIV-associated lipodystrophy","Cognition"],"researchAreaGuides":[{"slug":"weight-loss","label":"Weight Loss & Metabolic Health","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/weight-loss"},{"slug":"cognition-neuroprotection","label":"Cognition & Neuroprotection","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/cognition-neuroprotection"}],"shortDescription":"GHRH analog FDA-approved for HIV-associated lipodystrophy.","description":"Tesamorelin is a stabilized 44-amino-acid GHRH analog approved by the FDA in 2010 for reduction of excess abdominal fat in HIV-infected patients with lipodystrophy.","background":["Tesamorelin is a stabilized 44-amino-acid analog of growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). By stimulating the pituitary to release endogenous GH, it preserves more of the body’s natural feedback than exogenous GH would.","It is FDA-approved (Egrifta, 2010) specifically to reduce excess visceral abdominal fat in people with HIV-associated lipodystrophy. Beyond that indication it has been studied for visceral adiposity more broadly and, in research settings, for effects on cognition."],"keyResearch":["Visceral fat reduction — the approved use, lowering excess abdominal fat in HIV-associated lipodystrophy.","GH axis — GHRH-receptor agonism raising endogenous GH and IGF-1.","Cognition — examined in research for effects related to GH signaling.","Hepatic fat — studied as a metabolic endpoint.","FDA-approved (Egrifta) — for a specific HIV-related indication."],"faqs":[{"q":"What is tesamorelin?","a":"Tesamorelin is a GHRH analog FDA-approved (Egrifta) to reduce excess abdominal fat in people with HIV-associated lipodystrophy."},{"q":"How does it work?","a":"It stimulates the pituitary to release the body’s own growth hormone, rather than supplying GH directly."},{"q":"What is it approved for?","a":"Reduction of excess visceral abdominal fat in HIV-associated lipodystrophy. Other uses described here are research contexts, not approved indications."},{"q":"Is this medical advice?","a":"No — this page is a research and educational reference, not medical advice or a dosing protocol."}],"mechanism":"GHRH receptor agonism → endogenous GH release.","molecularWeight":5135.9,"molecularFormula":"C221H366N72O67S","sequence":null,"cas":"218949-48-5","pubchemCid":16137828,"uniprotId":null,"fdaApproved":true,"url":"https://americanpeptide.com/catalog/tesamorelin"},{"slug":"garetosmab","name":"Garetosmab","aliases":["REGN2477","Pasatru","garetosmab-grts"],"categories":["growth-hormone","metabolic"],"categoryLabels":["Growth Hormone","Metabolic"],"researchAreas":["Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva","Obesity","Body composition","Muscle preservation"],"researchAreaGuides":[{"slug":"weight-loss","label":"Weight Loss & Metabolic Health","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/weight-loss"},{"slug":"growth-hormone-axis","label":"Growth Hormone & Body Composition","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/growth-hormone-axis"},{"slug":"muscle-lean-mass","label":"Muscle Preservation & Lean Mass","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/muscle-lean-mass"}],"shortDescription":"An anti-activin-A antibody (Regeneron) — the first drug on the whole activin/myostatin axis to reach FDA approval (as Pasatru, for the rare bone disease FOP), and the activin-A leg of obesity muscle-preservation combinations.","description":"Garetosmab is a monoclonal antibody from Regeneron that neutralizes activin A — a TGF-β-superfamily ligand that, like myostatin, signals through the activin type II receptors. Blocking activin A widens the axis beyond myostatin alone, and garetosmab plays two roles in this catalog: in August 2026 it became the first agent on the entire activin/ActRII axis to win FDA approval (as Pasatru, for fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva), and it is the third leg of the triple obesity combination.","background":["Garetosmab’s lead indication is fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) — an ultra-rare disease in which soft tissue turns to bone, driven by activin A. Its Phase 3 OPTIMA trial was positive (roughly 90–94% reduction in new heterotopic bone lesions), and on August 19, 2026 the FDA approved it as Pasatru (garetosmab-grts) — the first and only approved FOP therapy shown to reduce both new bone lesions and flare-ups, and the first drug of the activin/myostatin axis to reach the market at all.","That approval is for a rare bone disease, not for obesity; its metabolic use remains investigational. In that setting garetosmab is the activin-A arm of the semaglutide + trevogrumab + garetosmab triple combination, which produced the best body-composition profile in the Phase 2 COURAGE trial — preserving roughly 80% of the lean mass that semaglutide alone would have cost, though the triplet carried more tolerability-driven discontinuations. As an anti-activin-A antibody (~150 kDa), it illustrates that the \"myostatin axis\" is really a broader activin/ActRII network with multiple blockable nodes."],"keyResearch":["FOP — positive Phase 3 OPTIMA (~90–94% reduction in new abnormal bone lesions); the lead indication.","FDA-approved — cleared as Pasatru (garetosmab-grts) on Aug 19, 2026 for FOP; the first agent on the activin/myostatin axis to reach approval.","Anti-activin A — widens muscle/fat modulation beyond myostatin by blocking a related ActRII ligand.","Triple combination — the activin-A leg of semaglutide + trevogrumab + garetosmab; the COURAGE triplet preserved ~80% of otherwise-lost lean mass.","Investigational in obesity — the FOP approval does not cover metabolic or muscle-preservation use."],"faqs":[{"q":"What is garetosmab?","a":"A Regeneron monoclonal antibody that neutralizes activin A. It is FDA-approved as Pasatru (garetosmab-grts) for the rare bone disease FOP, and it is also studied as a component of an obesity triple-combination aimed at preserving muscle."},{"q":"Is garetosmab FDA-approved?","a":"Yes — for fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP). The FDA approved it as Pasatru on August 19, 2026, making it the first drug of the activin/myostatin axis to reach the market. Its use in obesity or muscle preservation is investigational and not approved."},{"q":"Why does an FOP drug appear alongside obesity compounds?","a":"Activin A signals through the same ActRII receptors as myostatin. Blocking it both prevents abnormal bone formation in FOP and, combined with myostatin blockade and a GLP-1 drug, shifts weight loss toward fat while sparing muscle."},{"q":"Is this medical advice?","a":"No — this is a research and educational reference. Garetosmab is FDA-approved for FOP only; its obesity and muscle-preservation uses are investigational."}],"mechanism":"Binds and neutralizes activin A, blocking its signaling through ActRII. In bone disease this prevents activin-A-driven abnormal ossification; in the metabolic setting, adding activin-A blockade to myostatin blockade and incretin therapy further shifts body composition toward fat loss with preserved muscle.","molecularWeight":150000,"molecularFormula":null,"sequence":null,"cas":null,"pubchemCid":null,"uniprotId":null,"fdaApproved":true,"url":"https://americanpeptide.com/catalog/garetosmab"},{"slug":"pramlintide","name":"Pramlintide","aliases":["Symlin","AC-137","Tripro-amylin","Amylin analog"],"categories":["metabolic","peptide-hormone"],"categoryLabels":["Metabolic","Peptide Hormones"],"researchAreas":["Type 1 diabetes","Type 2 diabetes","Obesity","Satiety signaling","Peptide hormones"],"researchAreaGuides":[{"slug":"weight-loss","label":"Weight Loss & Metabolic Health","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/weight-loss"},{"slug":"peptide-hormones","label":"Peptide Hormone Synthesis","url":"https://americanpeptide.com/research-areas/peptide-hormones"}],"shortDescription":"The stabilized amylin analog — three prolines that stop native amylin from aggregating, turning the beta cell’s second satiety hormone into an injectable diabetes drug.","description":"Pramlintide (Symlin) is a synthetic analog of amylin, the hormone co-secreted with insulin from the pancreatic beta cell. Native human amylin is too aggregation-prone to formulate, so pramlintide substitutes proline at positions 25, 28 and 29 — swaps that block the β-sheet stacking without losing receptor activity. The result is the first approved amylin-receptor agonist: a mealtime add-on to insulin in type 1 and type 2 diabetes that slows gastric emptying, suppresses glucagon, and curbs appetite.","background":["Amylin is insulin’s co-secreted partner, but native human amylin cannot be bottled: it misfolds into the islet amyloid found in type 2 diabetes, aggregating on the resin and in solution. Pramlintide is the engineering answer — three proline substitutions (Ala25, Ser28, Ser29 → Pro) that break the amyloid-forming β-sheet while preserving amylin’s biology, giving a soluble, shelf-stable analog.","Approved in 2005 as Symlin, pramlintide is given before meals alongside insulin in type 1 and type 2 diabetes, where it blunts post-meal glucose spikes and modestly aids weight control — the parts of glucose regulation insulin alone handles poorly.","Pramlintide is the proof of concept for the whole amylin class. Its short duration made it a three-times-daily injection, which limited uptake, but it validated the amylin receptor as a satiety target — the opening that longer-acting analogs such as cagrilintide (profiled separately) now exploit at the front of obesity drug development."],"keyResearch":["First approved amylin analog — the proline-substituted, soluble form of human amylin (Symlin, 2005), used with mealtime insulin in type 1 and type 2 diabetes.","Anti-aggregation design — Ala25/Ser28/Ser29 → Pro break the β-sheet stacking that makes native amylin amyloidogenic and un-formulable.","Glucose control — slows gastric emptying and suppresses postprandial glucagon, blunting post-meal spikes that insulin alone controls poorly.","Weight — modest weight loss in trials; it validated amylin-receptor agonism as a satiety mechanism now central to the obesity pipeline.","Class opener — its short half-life drove development of long-acting analogs (cagrilintide) that pair with GLP-1 drugs for larger effects."],"faqs":[{"q":"What is pramlintide?","a":"Pramlintide (Symlin) is a synthetic amylin analog with three proline substitutions that prevent the aggregation of native human amylin, making it stable enough to inject as a mealtime add-on to insulin."},{"q":"How does it differ from amylin?","a":"It is human amylin with Ala25, Ser28 and Ser29 each replaced by proline — changes that block amyloid formation while keeping amylin-receptor activity."},{"q":"How does it relate to cagrilintide?","a":"Both are amylin-receptor agonists. Pramlintide is the short-acting, approved diabetes drug; cagrilintide is a long-acting analog developed for obesity, often paired with a GLP-1 agonist."},{"q":"Is this medical advice?","a":"No — this is a research and educational reference, not dosing guidance."}],"mechanism":"Amylin-receptor agonism (a calcitonin-receptor core complexed with RAMP subunits). Slows gastric emptying, suppresses postprandial glucagon, and acts centrally to reduce food intake — complementing, not duplicating, injected insulin.","molecularWeight":3949.4,"molecularFormula":"C171H267N51O53S2","sequence":"KCNTATCATQRLANFLVHSSNNFGPILPPTNVGSNTY (2–7 disulfide, C-terminal amide)","cas":"151126-32-8","pubchemCid":70691388,"uniprotId":"P10997","fdaApproved":true,"url":"https://americanpeptide.com/catalog/pramlintide"}]}